### 5.1 Representation of Strings

This section is a quick summary of string concepts for beginning C programmers. It describes how character strings are represented in C and some common pitfalls. If you are already familiar with this material, you can skip this section.

A string is an array of `char` objects. But string-valued variables are usually declared to be pointers of type `char *`. Such variables do not include space for the text of a string; that has to be stored somewhere else—in an array variable, a string constant, or dynamically allocated memory (see Memory Allocation). It's up to you to store the address of the chosen memory space into the pointer variable. Alternatively you can store a null pointer in the pointer variable. The null pointer does not point anywhere, so attempting to reference the string it points to gets an error.

“string” normally refers to multibyte character strings as opposed to wide character strings. Wide character strings are arrays of type `wchar_t` and as for multibyte character strings usually pointers of type `wchar_t *` are used.

By convention, a null character, `'\0'`, marks the end of a multibyte character string and the null wide character, `L'\0'`, marks the end of a wide character string. For example, in testing to see whether the `char *` variable p points to a null character marking the end of a string, you can write `!*`p or `*`p`== '\0'`.

A null character is quite different conceptually from a null pointer, although both are represented by the integer `0`.

String literals appear in C program source as strings of characters between double-quote characters (‘`"`’) where the initial double-quote character is immediately preceded by a capital ‘`L`’ (ell) character (as in `L"foo"`). In ISO C, string literals can also be formed by string concatenation: `"a" "b"` is the same as `"ab"`. For wide character strings one can either use `L"a" L"b"` or `L"a" "b"`. Modification of string literals is not allowed by the GNU C compiler, because literals are placed in read-only storage.

Character arrays that are declared `const` cannot be modified either. It's generally good style to declare non-modifiable string pointers to be of type `const char *`, since this often allows the C compiler to detect accidental modifications as well as providing some amount of documentation about what your program intends to do with the string.

The amount of memory allocated for the character array may extend past the null character that normally marks the end of the string. In this document, the term allocated size is always used to refer to the total amount of memory allocated for the string, while the term length refers to the number of characters up to (but not including) the terminating null character. A notorious source of program bugs is trying to put more characters in a string than fit in its allocated size. When writing code that extends strings or moves characters into a pre-allocated array, you should be very careful to keep track of the length of the text and make explicit checks for overflowing the array. Many of the library functions do not do this for you! Remember also that you need to allocate an extra byte to hold the null character that marks the end of the string.

Originally strings were sequences of bytes where each byte represents a single character. This is still true today if the strings are encoded using a single-byte character encoding. Things are different if the strings are encoded using a multibyte encoding (for more information on encodings see Extended Char Intro). There is no difference in the programming interface for these two kind of strings; the programmer has to be aware of this and interpret the byte sequences accordingly.

But since there is no separate interface taking care of these differences the byte-based string functions are sometimes hard to use. Since the count parameters of these functions specify bytes a call to `strncpy` could cut a multibyte character in the middle and put an incomplete (and therefore unusable) byte sequence in the target buffer.

To avoid these problems later versions of the ISO C standard introduce a second set of functions which are operating on wide characters (see Extended Char Intro). These functions don't have the problems the single-byte versions have since every wide character is a legal, interpretable value. This does not mean that cutting wide character strings at arbitrary points is without problems. It normally is for alphabet-based languages (except for non-normalized text) but languages based on syllables still have the problem that more than one wide character is necessary to complete a logical unit. This is a higher level problem which the C library functions are not designed to solve. But it is at least good that no invalid byte sequences can be created. Also, the higher level functions can also much easier operate on wide character than on multibyte characters so that a general advise is to use wide characters internally whenever text is more than simply copied.

The remaining of this chapter will discuss the functions for handling wide character strings in parallel with the discussion of the multibyte character strings since there is almost always an exact equivalent available.